But over the last decade, data from RBI shows, the migration of professional migrants to Western countries drove the sharp increase in remittances. Between and , two-thirds of all received funds came from the United States, Canada, and Europe, and more than half of all transferred funds received in and originated from Northern America alone.
There is no systematic data on the regional destinations of remittances in India. However, economists K. P Kannan and K. Hari estimate that for the South Indian state of Kerala, the origin of many temporary gulf migrants, remittance inflows averaged 22 percent of the state's income.
In addition to remittances, India has seen growth in capital inflows. In the s, the government authorized special deposit schemes for non-resident Indians NRIs to increase its foreign-exchange reserves; depositors can hold their money in foreign currencies or in Indian rupees. When India has urgently needed foreign exchange, it has used diaspora bonds — debt instruments for raising money from a country's diaspora.
Although no reliable statistics exist, anecdotally it appears an increasing number of Indians have returned in recent years. Returnees can benefit their home countries by contributing enhanced skills, which can be used in the country of origin human capital ; access to business networks abroad social capital ; and financial capital and investment.
The Indian information technology IT industry is widely regarded as a showcase for this triple-benefit formula. While the industry's success is attributable to other factors, the impact of the diaspora and returnees from the United States particularly is believed to be important for three reasons. First, several studies have shown that Indians who returned from the United States have founded and managed successful IT companies in India.
Second, some Indians who founded companies in Silicon Valley have subcontracted work to companies in India. These entrepreneurs often serve as intermediaries between the markets. Third, the success of Indian IT professionals in the United States has created trust in the country's intellectual abilities abroad. It has been a major factor in branding India as a source of well-educated and hard-working professionals, rather than a poverty-ridden country of snake charmers.
This new "India brand" explains several countries' increased interest in recruiting Indian graduates and professionals.
However, this image has repercussions for India's attractiveness as a partner for trade and investment. It also contributes to the willingness of U. Within the last decade, the Indian government has shown significant interest in the diaspora and established a number of diaspora policies. India's increasing interest in its diaspora has three major factors.
First, India once had a closed economy that did not encourage foreign contributions, businesses, or investment. When the government liberalized the economy in , diasporic Indians became more useful as agents of trade, investment, and technology. Second, Indian foreign policy began to recognize the value of the diaspora in industrialized countries, especially the United States, for public diplomacy. And third, only from the mids, ethnic Indians started surfacing as high-level executives of multinational corporations.
The general success of the community, especially in the United States and Canada, and the community's positive influence on the overall idea of Indian qualities led successive Indian governments to take a more proactive approach. Since , the government has hosted an annual diaspora conference, the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, that is designed to serve as a platform for interaction between overseas Indians, the Indian government, and interested segments of the Indian society, such as businessmen and cultural and charity organizations.
High-level political leaders, including the prime minister, the president, and union ministers, address 1, to 1, overseas Indians on topics such as investment and philanthropic activities in India as well as concerns of the diaspora communities the world over.
Established in , the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs coordinates activities aimed at reaching out to the diaspora. These include the "Know India Program" for diaspora youth and annual awards for eminent diaspora personalities.
The government also set up a Global Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, consisting of diasporic scholars, scientists, politicians, and businessmen, in Both grant practical parity with Indian citizens but do not permit voting, standing for election, or government employment. PIO cards are available to former Indian citizens and their non-Indian-born descendants up to four generations while OCI is limited to those whose parents or grandparents once had or were eligible for Indian citizenship on January 26, Also, OCI grants a lifelong visa and does not require reporting to the police for stays longer than days.
With the financial resources of the diaspora in mind, the government amended investment laws and established the Overseas Indian Facilitation Centre in to make it easier for Indians abroad to invest. Temporary low- and semiskilled labor migration, mainly to the gulf region but also to Malaysia and increasingly to other parts of the word, prompted the Indian government to institute important new policies.
Key focus areas are preparing migrants before they leave, controlling and monitoring the licensing of agents and brokers, safeguarding migrants' rights in countries of temporary residence, maximizing their remittance potential, and facilitating reintegration upon their return. Since , there is a compulsory insurance system for Indian workers moving overseas, the Pravasi Bharatiya Bima Yojana.
Further, the government has established a welfare fund for overseas workers and negotiated bilateral agreements on the transferability of their social security contributions. The welfare fund covers boarding and lodging for distressed overseas Indians in the domestic sector and unskilled laborers. According to a bilateral friendship treaty signed between India and Nepal in , citizens of both countries can travel and work freely across the border and are to be treated the same as native citizens.
Nepali migration to India dates back to the 19th century, when many Nepalis migrated to Punjab and joined the British army in India. They also came to work on tea plantations in Assam and Darjeeling. The Nepal Living Standard Survey, as well as scholars who have studied Nepali migration, have estimated that 1 million Nepalis work in India.
Most are unskilled permanent or seasonal laborers and domestic workers, living almost exclusively in Northern India. Nepal's census reported , persons born in India of which only , were registered as Indian citizens. Other estimates include the majority of the settlers of south Nepali provinces, such as the Terai, as ethnic Indians. The Foreigners Act of regulates the entry and stay of foreigners in India. It requires all foreigners to register with the local police if they are in the country for longer than days.
The Home Ministry reports that , foreigners were registered in India as of December 31, , just 0. Students 8. The census revealed that more than 6 million residents were born outside the country including Indian citizens born abroad , but almost all 5.
Only , individuals were born outside of the region: 28 percent of them in Africa, 25 percent in the Middle East, and only 20 percent in Northern America, Europe, and Oceania combined.
However, anecdotal evidence from Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore suggests that the real number of non-South Asian foreigners in India is significantly higher.
India has traditionally treated refugees well even though it is not a party to the Refugee Convention and its Protocol. Most famously, India granted refuge to the Dalai Lama when he fled Tibet in and permitted him to set up a government-in-exile in Dharamsala.
The Indian government allows the Central Tibetan Administration autonomy in public education, for example, but does not officially recognize it as a government. The approximately 80, Tibetans who arrived in the first and largest wave received resident permits and were offered low-paying public works jobs by the Indian government.
However, more recent Tibetan refugees have not been as welcome, with many denied residence permits. Thousands more came when the Taliban took power in More recently, the Indian government has agreed to naturalize many of these Hindu and Sikh Afghans who have lived in India since In addition, UNHCR reports that currently, about 4, asylum seekers, mostly from Afghanistan and Burma, are in the process of refugee certification.
Ethnic South Indians Tamils from Sri Lanka began fleeing to India in response to the civil war that broke out in between the government and the Tamil Tigers, who wanted an independent Tamil state on the island. As of late , about 73, Sri Lankan refugees were living in camps across southern India, mainly in Tamil Nadu. More recently, India has received Iraqi and Palestinian refugees from Baghdad, some of whom have been resettled to third countries. India has not enacted any laws or regulations relating to the status of asylum seekers and refugees.
Instead, those persons are governed by the general Foreigners Act of In most cases, recognized refugees do not have the right of free movement in India and are not entitled to work.
Indian law requires every person entering the country to have proper documentation denoting permission from Indian authorities. Without such permission, a person is at risk of deportation as an illegal entrant. This situation is problematic for most refugees who often do not have passports, let alone Indian visas. The South Asia Human Rights Documentation Centre reports that although the Extradition Act of provides some protection to refugees facing extradition, this act does not provide real safeguards for the majority of refugees in India whose removal falls under the category of expulsion rather than extradition.
Eminent jurist Rajeev Dhavan reports that on the positive side, the Supreme Court and various High Courts extend constitutional rights to refugees and migrants. However, following the Law Commission's th Report of , the Foreigner Act was made stricter to treat "illegal entrants" harshly, irrespective of the circumstances underlying their migration. Only specific refugee groups such as the Tibetans and Sri Lankan Tamils are recognized and supported directly by the Indian government.
When reform of the Indian Citizenship Act of was discussed in , the Standing Committee on Home Affairs stated the following about refugees:. Employment opportunities are not available due to increase of population manifold. In such a situation, the country is unable to undertake additional burden of refugees from other countries.
Keeping in view the economic and population reasons, citizenship cannot be granted to the refugees who have come on or after 25 March The Ministry of Home Affairs states that to prevent new, large waves of Sri Lankan refugees, several measures, including intensified coastal patrolling, collection and collation of advance intelligence, and strengthening of naval detachments in Tamil Nadu, have been undertaken.
For decades, India has received a constant inflow of unauthorized migrants from Bangladesh. According to a survey conducted by the Indian Statistical Institute in , most have economic reasons for migrating, such as poverty and the lack of employment opportunities, in addition to political instability.
These migrants generally find work as cheap labor in the informal sector, often as domestic helpers, construction laborers, rickshaw pullers, and rag pickers. The Bangladeshi government does not officially recognize those migrants and thus does not provide help or support. In , Bangladesh's foreign minister was quoted as saying that not a single unauthorized Bangladeshi resided in India. As with most illegal migration, data on its extent is scarce. The Home Ministry estimated the number of unauthorized Bangladeshis as of December at 12 million, residing in 17 Indian states.
However, in February , the Home Ministry withdrew these data as "unreliable" and based on "mere hearsay. Political scientist Kamal Sadiq has estimated the number of illegal migrants from Bangladesh at 15 to 20 million, basing the number partly on documented growth of Muslim communities and partly on unpublished government reports. Sadiq's research has found that many of these Bangladeshis adopt Hindu names and are able to obtain fraudulent documents that allow them access to government subsidies and even to vote in elections.
Indeed, some Indian politicians have benefited from votes cast by illegally resident Bangladeshi migrants. As recently as April , the Indian Supreme Court directed the government to take all possible steps to prevent the "illegal immigration and infiltration" of Bangladeshis into India, while approving of the government's ongoing efforts, such as fencing off the India-Bangladesh border.
The Ministry of Home Affairs reports that 2, kilometers the Indo-Bangladesh border had been fenced by mid The fence is expected to be completed by March , with a total length of 3, kilometers. The movement of Indians across the globe since the British colonial era and the development of those communities will continue to interest policymakers and scholars for decades to come.
Ethnic Indian communities, especially those in the United States and the United Kingdom, have become known for their economic success and generally peaceful integration. However, millions of ethnic Indians, including those on temporary contracts in the Middle East, have limited rights and less secure futures. The Indian government has demonstrated its commitment to differing groups abroad. Investment and return to India have become easier for the more well-off members of the diaspora, and those on temporary contracts have benefitted from more government preparation before they leave and from more efficient remittance systems.
Further, as people who differ in skin color from the majority society in most host countries, despite their general acceptance, ethnic Indians remain potential targets of xenophobic tendencies and violence. Such incidents have occurred not only in countries with existing ethnic tensions, like Malaysia, Fiji, and Sri Lanka, but also in the United Kingdom, when white British and persons of South Asian heritage violently clashed during the Oldham race riots of Assaults have also occurred in Germany, when Indian petty-merchants were attacked at a market in ; in Kenya, where riots against Indians and Indian property struck the community in early ; and most recently in Australia with several attacks on Indian students in India arguably has long served as a destination for economic migrants and refugees from neighboring countries.
Yet policymakers and Indian society have yet to address head-on challenges related to illegal immigration from Bangladesh. Even before the terrorist attacks in Mumbai in November , India looked at illegal migration as a threat to internal security.
In , the government started a process to provide forgery-proof identity cards to all its nationals. This is one attempt to tackle the problem of future illegal immigration. With regard to refugee-related policies, both UNHCR and India's National Human Rights Commission haves urged the Indian government for decades to ratify the refugee convention and its protocols, as well as to enact special legislation related to refugees and child refugees.
Although India is a member of UNHCR's Executive Committee, approving and supervising the agency's assistance programs, India is not willing to sign the refugee convention because — as political analyst Anuj Nair argues — it regards the convention as too Euro-centric. Also, as Nair points out, the refugee convention does not take into account mass movements of refugees in developing countries.
Furthermore, including refugee issues into multilateral relations and international agreements could constrict India's freedom of action in these areas. For all these reasons, it does not seem likely that India's view of the refugee convention will change in the near future.
After a nongovernmental commission, chaired by former Chief Justice of India P. Until recently, the government of India was reluctant to adopt a special legal framework because this would limit its powers to deal with refugees on the basis of mere political convenience and because it argues that it treats refugees well regardless of their legal status.
Since , the refugee bill has been under consideration by an interministerial committee, including NHRC. The committee's outcome will decide the legal status of present and future refugees in India. It is expected that India will be the most populous country by , with a largely young and thus mobile population.
Given India's expanding middle class and continuing poverty, international labor, highly skilled migration, and illegal migration are likely to grow, as is the scale of internal mobility. Further, it is not clear yet how climate change could affect India's migration scenario. Neighboring Bangladesh regularly suffers from severe flooding, adding to the migration pressure for its nationals to search for opportunities in India.
India will need to revise its existing laws governing foreigners and eventually prepare to see itself as a country people also come to, rather than only a country people leave. Atlas Project. Data on international Student Mobility. Institute of International Education, New York. Available online.
Bhat, Chandrashekhar. India and the Indian Diaspora: Inter-linkages and Expectations. In Indian Diaspora: Global Identity , ed. Ajay Dubey, 11— Chishti, Muzaffar. Washington D. Council of Graduate Schools. Deshingkar, Priya. International Organization for Migration, Dubey, Ajay, ed. Indian Diaspora. Global Identity. High-Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora. Report on the Indian Diaspora. Hill, K. Seltzer, J. Leaning, S. Malik, S. Russell, and C. Hunger, Uwe. Indian IT-Entrepreneurs in the U.
All were included because physicians Thirty-one case studies on nurse migration economist, and public health researcher. Although this published between and representing countries and finding illustrated that nurse migration was of interest to researchers from around the world were identified initially.
Sixteen studies met inclusion criteria and were in both the design and interpretation of findings. For accepted for analysis. Data evaluation stage the United States but incorrectly concluded that these agreements had not encouraged the same movement of Strategies for data analysis with integrative reviews have Mexican nurses.
In reality, Mexican nurses were not eligible been identified as one of the least developed aspects of the for U. This is the reason of primary sources, along with an innovative synthesis of the for the lack of migration, not the trade agreement. As Countries from around the world were the focus of these recommended, a systematic method for conducting the studies.
The United Kingdom was the country of focus in Table 2 Where have studies using CSM in nurse migration research been conducted and by whom? The because these two countries were found to have originated consequences are the outcomes of nurse migration.
These most primary research on nurse migration reported in the can be evaluated from the perspectives of the individuals and literature. James Buchan, an expert in nurse migration, of other stakeholders e. Tobago, and the Caribbean. These findings indicate that Thirteen Other studies, like the U. Are the issues the same in these had migrated there; another study examined only UK pull countries?
More studies are needed to answer this question. The views of stakeholders in different migration takes place and the outcomes of this movement. It countries may vary because as one gains a nursing resource, also identifies the many different perspectives that can be the other loses. Nine studies Although CSM is frequently used to study the country perspective, five CSM would offer an ideal approach, for There is a need to examine nurse migration from the example, to study the individual nurse in the destination perspective of stakeholders in both the source and destina- country since little is known about the profiles, future career tion countries because the impact of nurse movement would plans, and equality of treatment of these nurse migrants affect both differently.
Buchan et al. What was the purpose of the study? What themes have been explored in the nurse 4. Discussion migration research using CSM? Conducting a review of the use of CSM in research on To answer these questions the purpose and methods were nurse migration presented several challenges.
The first summarized. Themes were tracked as previously described challenge was the unclear and inconsistent use of the term see Table 3. All the studies had a clear purpose and used multiple This confusion occurs in CSM studies in other fields, and the methods of data gathering.
Yin identifies that evidence nurse migration literature was no different. As expected, can come from documents, archival records interviews, direct alternative terms for case study such as field work Goode, observation, participant observation, and physical artifacts p. Most studies used documents and archival records in the tosh, were found. There is an opportunity to use more articles, meaning there was an absence of a description of the primary sources in CSM study designs.
Antecedents are the however, is not unusual, and Yin provides several political, social, economic, legal, historical, and educational interesting insights.
Pull factors designed for the target audience. He supports the lack of are conditions in the destination country that attract and inclusion of the research methodology p. What themes were explored in the nurse migration research using CSM? The need for guidelines for the using CSM. These case critical assessment by others of the strengths and weakness in studies are required to inform important policy research. Because there is a lack of primary research on nurse The standardization of reporting, although atypical in migration, it would be helpful, as a next step, to conduct a qualitative research, would also educate more people on more comprehensive integrative review, focusing on all good case study protocol.
This would contribute to a broader p. The inclusion of research stages of the integrative review because it was time intensive from the gray literature, such as working papers, would and required careful attention to ensure accurate coding, further strengthen these findings. Some data requirements, such as identifying the background 5. Conclusion of lead authors required additional Internet searches.
How should CSM be used in the study of nurse migration CSM is increasingly being used in nursing research to in the future? This integrative review was the first to examine the use of CSM in nurse migration. It contributed to focusing on the relevance of the research.
Each of these our understanding of the strengths of this methodology and publications contributed to a better understanding of nurse reasons for the inconsistent use of the term case study in the migration. Aiken described nurse migrants in the literature. Smith migration have been conducted, by whom, and the themes and Mackintosh's UK study illustrated how nurse explored.
Insights and recommendations have been provided migrants are treated differently e. Nurse migration is a growing global phenomenon that has this exploitation could have on the nursing profession.
Dovlo outlined the complex array of internal push Nurses therefore have a vested interest in leading research that factors combined with external pull factors from wealthy explores the causes and consequences of this movement.
CSM countries, which have created severe nurse shortages in sub- is a promising methodology to guide this exploration. Saharan Africa.
Khadria traced the growth in the numbers of nurses migrating from India as a result of the massive escalation in the number of recruitment agencies. Little Aiken, L. Health Services Research, 42 3 , —, doi Canada and an analysis of the stakeholders in these American Psychological Association. Publication manual of the processes. Buchan b warned us that although American Psychological Association.
Washington, DC: Author. Qualitative case study methodology in in dire need of nurses, there is virtually no published nursing research: An integrative review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, research on the adaptation of these nurses to different 65 6 , —, doi Blouin, C.
Each article made case of Canadian nurses. Bourgeault, I. Caring beyond borders: Comparing the relationship between work and migration patterns in Canada and Buchan et al. They recommend it be used to concepts.
In: Concept devlopemnet in nursing: Foundations, techniques conduct a more detailed evaluation of factors such as and applications. Rodgers B, Knafl K, Eds. Philadelphia: Saunders, national or international policies that reduce migration and pp. Bryar, R. Bansil, P. Vikas Publ.
House, New Delhi Google Scholar. Ministry of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi Kayastha, S. Journal of Scientific Research 28, 1, 85—96 Google Scholar. National Planning Commission, Kathmandu Ramdas, L. Handbook of Agriculture. Roy, B.
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